This section publishes articles and technical materials on electric motors and their control.

Articles

Esta sección publica artículos y materiales técnicos sobre motores eléctricos y su control.

Artículos

articles

<h1>
    Four quadrant DC motor operation
</h1>

<div>
    <h2>
        Motoring mode and braking mode
    </h2>
    <p>
        A DC motor can operate in one of two modes - motoring mode or braking mode.
    </p>
    <ul>
        <li>In the motoring mode electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy, the motor produces the torque that is necessary for rotation;</li>
        <li>In the braking mode the situation is opposite - under the influence of external forces, the motor works as a generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. The load torque in this case counteracts the rotation of the motor.</li>
    </ul>
    <p>
        A DC motor can rotate both forward or reverse. Operation can be in the motoring mode or in the braking mode and in two variants of the rotation direction. Other words, the DC motor can operate in both directions of rotation and produce both movement and braking. These four modes of operation are four-quadrant DC motor operation.
    </p>
    <p>
        The power produced by the motor is determined by the product of the angular velocity and the torque. The driving mode is such a mode of operation of the DC motor when the power it produces has a positive sign. The braking mode is the mode of operation in which the product of the angular velocity and the torque has a negative sign.
    </p>
</div>

<div>
    <h2>
        Four quadrant operation
    </h2>
    <p>
        A DC motor can operate in one of two modes - motoring mode or braking mode.
    </p>
    <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; margin-top: 20px">
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Quadrant I
            </h3>
            <p>
                The power produced by the electric motor in the first quadrant is positive. The work is carried out in the motoring mode, there is a conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy. The operation of the motor in the first quadrant is motoring in the forward direction.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Quadrant II
            </h3>
            <p>
                In the second quadrant, the motor rotates in the forward direction, its speed has a positive sign. The torque value has a negative sign. The direction of rotation is positive, i.e. the speed is positive and the torque is negative. Consequently, the power produced by the motor also has a negative value, the motor operates in the generator mode, counteracting the movement. The kinetic energy of the motor rotor is converted into electrical energy. Therefore, the operation of the motor in the second quadrant is called braking in the forward direction.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Quadrant III
            </h3>
            <p>
                In the third quadrant, both rotational speed and torque are negative. Their product determines the positive power value. The operation of the motor in the third quadrant is reverse motoring.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Quadrant IV
            </h3>
            <p>
                In the fourth quadrant, the motor speed has a negative value, while the produced torque has a positive sign. Therefore, the motor power is negative, which corresponds to the braking mode. The operation of the motor in the fourth quadrant is reverse braking.
            </p>
        </div>
    </div>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/four-quadrant-motor-operation/1.png" alt="The four-quadrant operation of a DC motor can be described as follows">
    </picture>
</div>

<p>The article describes the concept of four-quadrant operation of a DC motor – motoring and braking modes, and considers the speed and torque vectors for four variants of motor operation.</p>

Develope and sale stepper motor, dc brush and brushless controllers and drivers Smart Motor Devices

Four quadrant DC motor operation Smart Motor Devices

Four quadrant DC motor operation

<h1>
    Funcionamiento del motor CC de cuatro cuadrantes
</h1>

<div>
    <h2>
        Modo de motor y modo de frenado
    </h2>
    <p>
        Un motor de CC puede funcionar en uno de dos modos: modo de motor o modo de frenado.
    </p>
    <ul>
        <li>En el modo motor la energía eléctrica se convierte en energía mecánica, el motor produce el par necesario para la rotación;</li>
        <li>En el modo de frenado la situación es opuesta: bajo la influencia de fuerzas externas, el motor funciona como un generador, convirtiendo la energía mecánica en energía eléctrica. En este caso el par de carga contrarresta la rotación del motor.</li>
    </ul>
    <p>
        Un motor de CC puede girar tanto hacia adelante como hacia atrás. El funcionamiento puede ser en modo motor o en modo frenado y en dos variantes del sentido de rotación. En otras palabras, el motor de CC puede funcionar en ambos sentidos de rotación y producir tanto movimiento como frenado. Estos cuatro modos de funcionamiento son el funcionamiento de un motor de CC de cuatro cuadrantes.
    </p>
    <p>
        La potencia producida por el motor está determinada por el producto de la velocidad angular y el par. El modo de conducción es aquel modo de funcionamiento del motor de CC cuando la potencia que produce tiene signo positivo. El modo de frenado es el modo de funcionamiento en el que el producto de la velocidad angular y el par tiene signo negativo.
    </p>
</div>

<div>
    <h2>
        Operación de cuatro cuadrantes
    </h2>
    <p>
        Un motor de CC puede funcionar en uno de dos modos: modo de motor o modo de frenado.
    </p>
    <div style="display: flex; flex-wrap: wrap; gap: 20px; margin-top: 20px">
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Cuadrante I
            </h3>
            <p>
                La potencia producida por el motor eléctrico en el primer cuadrante es positiva. El trabajo se realiza en modo motor, hay una conversión de energía eléctrica en energía mecánica. El funcionamiento del motor en el primer cuadrante es el de avance.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Cuadrante II
            </h3>
            <p>
                En el segundo cuadrante, el motor gira hacia adelante, su velocidad tiene signo positivo. El valor del par tiene signo negativo. El sentido de rotación es positivo, es decir, la velocidad es positiva y el par es negativo. En consecuencia, la potencia producida por el motor también tiene un valor negativo, el motor funciona en modo generador, contrarrestando el movimiento. La energía cinética del rotor del motor se convierte en energía eléctrica. Por tanto, el funcionamiento del motor en el segundo cuadrante se denomina frenado en dirección de avance.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Cuadrante III
            </h3>
            <p>
                En el tercer cuadrante, tanto la velocidad de rotación como el par son negativos. Su producto determina el valor de potencia positivo. El funcionamiento del motor en el tercer cuadrante es marcha atrás.
            </p>
        </div>
        <div style="width: calc(100%/2 - 10px); background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 20px; margin-bottom: 0">
            <h3>
                Cuadrante IV
            </h3>
            <p>
                En el cuarto cuadrante, la velocidad del motor tiene un valor negativo, mientras que el par producido tiene un signo positivo. Por tanto, la potencia del motor es negativa, lo que corresponde al modo de frenado. El funcionamiento del motor en el cuarto cuadrante es el frenado inverso.
            </p>
        </div>
    </div>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/four-quadrant-motor-operation/1.png" alt="The four-quadrant operation of a DC motor can be described as follows">
    </picture>
</div>

<p>El artículo describe el concepto de funcionamiento en cuatro cuadrantes de un motor de CC: modos de motorización y frenado, y considera los vectores de velocidad y par para cuatro variantes de funcionamiento del motor.</p>

Desarrollo y venta de controladores y controladores de motores paso a paso, CC con y sin escobillas

Funcionamiento del motor CC de cuatro cuadrantes Smart Motor Devices

Funcionamiento del motor CC de cuatro cuadrantes

four-quadrant-motor-operation

<h1>
    Basics about BLDC motor control
</h1>

<div>
    <p>
        To illustrate the commutating process of a DC brushless motor, let's consider one of its implementations - a BLDC motor with twelve coils in the stator and fourteen magnets in the rotor. There are many options for winding and the number of coils/magnets, but the principle remains the same. Below is a diagram (the poles of the magnets are marked in red and blue), the winding is shown in blue, red and orange, the Hall sensors are not yet marked.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/1.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        Let's start commutation. At the first step, we energize windings A (+) and B (-). C remained unconnected. As a result, current will flow in the coils wound with the orange wire. The coils are wound in different directions, so the top two coils will be attracted to magnets m and n, and the bottom two to the magnets g and f. The remaining coils and magnets play virtually no role in this configuration. With such power supply to the motor, it obviously will not spin, and will have seven stable rotor positions, evenly distributed around the entire circumference (the upper left orange stator coil can attract magnets m, a, c, e, g, i, k).
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/2.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        And now let’s change commutation - apply power to B (-) and C (+).The red coils will attract magnets a, b, h and i, the rotor will turn slightly. Rotor rotation angle can be calculated as (360*2/12) – (360*2/7) = 8.57°. If change commutation to C (+) and A (-), the rotation angle will be 17.14°.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/3.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        Let’s apply voltage to align the magnets with the green coils. The red and blue magnets have swapped places, so now we need to apply reverse voltage. Rotation angle is 25.71°.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/4.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        The same with the remaining two positions. Rotation angle is 34.29°.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/5.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        Rotation angle is 42.85°.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/6.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        Let’s repeat the first step again - the rotor will turn exactly one-seventh of a full revolution. So, the motor has three leads in total, and it is possible to apply voltage to two of them in six different ways 6 (2<sup>3</sup>-2 = 6). All of these 6 positions are already gone through. If the voltage is not applied chaotically, but in a strict order, which depends on the position of the rotor, then the motor will rotate. Below is the summary table of commutations and rotation angles.
    </p>
    <table>
        <tr>
            <td>Rotor rotation angle</td>
            <td>A</td>
            <td>B</td>
            <td>C</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>0°</td>
            <td>+</td>
            <td>-</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>8.57</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
            <td>-</td>
            <td>+</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>17.14</td>
            <td>-</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
            <td>+</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>25.71</td>
            <td>-</td>
            <td>+</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>34.29</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
            <td>+</td>
            <td>-</td>
        </tr>
        <tr>
            <td>42.85</td>
            <td>+</td>
            <td>Not connected</td>
            <td>-</td>
        </tr>
    </table>
    <p>
        Compared to a DC brush motors, where the commutation is done using brushes, a BLDC motors need a way to determine the rotor position. There are different implementations of such methods. The most common ones are using Hall sensors or back EMF.
    </p>
</div>

<div>
    <h2>
        Rotor position detection using Hall sensors
    </h2>
    <p>
        If three Hall sensors are added to the existing diagram of the BLDC motor so, that a logical 1 appears at the moment when it is opposite the red magnet, it is possible to get 6 different states. Strictly speaking, there are a total of 8 possible different states (0 or 1) for 3 Hall sensors. But due to the distance between the sensors, all three of them cannot be at logical 0 or logical 1. Therefore, in this case, 6 states (2<sup>3</sup> – 2) can be considered.
    </p>
    <picture>
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/8.png" alt="">
        <img src="/files/info/articles/bldc-motors-basics/7.png" alt="">
    </picture>
    <p>
        It is important that the sensors generate three signals located at a distance of a third of a period relative to each other. A third of a period is 120 degrees. Thus, it is considered that the sensors are located at 120 degrees relative to each other. To control a brushless motor, it is enough to read the signals from the Hall sensors, and accordingly switch the voltage at the windings.
    </p>
    <div style="background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 30px; margin-top: 20px;">
        <p>
            You can choose a DC brushless motor with Hall sensors, that is best suited for your project on our website in the section
            <br/>
            <a href="/products/dc-brushless-motors">DC brushless motors (BLDC)</a>.
            <br><br>
            <a href="https://shop.smd.ee/11-dc-brushless-motor-controllers">DC brushless motor controllers</a> for BLDC motors with Hall sensors are available to be purchased in our online store shop.smd.ee
        </p>
    </div>
    <div style="background: #F4F6F9; border-radius: 20px; padding: 30px;">
        <p>
            In many cases, the rotor position is determined without the use of Hall sensors. To do this, the current in the windings and back EMF are analyzed. However, this method has its drawbacks and is poorly applicable in cases where low speeds and high starting torque are required, and is also less commonly used in positioning tasks.
        </p>
    </div>
</div>

<div>
    <h2>
        Compare to stepper motors
    </h2>
    <p>
        To some approximation, stepper motors and some BLDC motor designs without Hall sensors are conceptually similar. The main difference is the number of phases and poles. Stepper motors, as a rule, are commutated with two phases shifted by 90°, and brushless motors are mostly commutated with three phases shifted by 120°. In addition, stepper motors are designed to increase the holding torque and steps repeatability steps, while brushless motors without Hall sensors are designed to increase the speed and smoothness of rotation, which affects the number of windings, bearings, etc. But in the end, a regular brushless motor can be used in stepper mode, and a stepper motor can be used in constant rotation mode. Their controls will be the same.
    </p>
</div>

<p>The article describes in detail the operating principle of a brushless motor, provides an example of the phases switching sequence and calculation of rotor positions for a full 6-stage switching cycle.</p>

Basics about BLDC motors

<p>El artículo describe en detalle el principio de funcionamiento de un motor sin escobillas, proporciona un ejemplo de la secuencia de conmutación de fases y el cálculo de las posiciones del rotor para un ciclo de conmutación completo de 6 etapas.</p>

Conceptos básicos sobre el control de motores BLDC

Conceptos básicos sobre motores BLDC

bldc-motors-basics

<p>The longread article provides a detailed analysis of DC brushless motor control: examples of commutation - directions and force vectors for motors with different numbers of poles, determining the rotor position using BEMF and Hall sensors.</p>

DC Brushless motor control

<p>El artículo de lectura extensa proporciona un análisis detallado del control de motores de CC sin escobillas: ejemplos de conmutación: direcciones y vectores de fuerza para motores con diferente número de polos, determinando la posición del rotor mediante sensores BEMF y Hall.</p>

Artículo sobre el control de motores DC sin escobillas